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Acculturative orientations among Hispanic/Latinx caregivers in the ABCD Study: Associations with caregiver and youth mental health and youth brain function

Open AccessPublished:February 17, 2023DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.02.005
Acculturative orientations among Hispanic/Latinx caregivers in the ABCD Study: Associations with caregiver and youth mental health and youth brain function
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      ABSTRACT

      Background

      Population-based neuroscience offers opportunities to examine important but understudied sociocultural factors, such as acculturation. Acculturation refers to the extent to which an individual retains their cultural heritage and/or adopts the receiving society’s culture and is particularly salient among Hispanic/Latinx immigrants. Specific acculturative orientations have been linked to vulnerability to substance use, depression, and suicide and are known to influence family dynamics between caregivers and their children.

      Methods

      We investigated first- and second-generation Hispanic/Latinx caregivers in the ABCD Study (n = 1,057) and examined how caregivers’ acculturative orientation impacts their mental health, as well as the mental health and brain function of their children. Neuroimaging analyses focused on regions associated with self- and affiliation-based social processing (ventromedial prefrontal cortex, insula, and temporoparietal junction).

      Results

      We identified two profiles of caregiver acculturation: bicultural (retains heritage culture while adopting US culture) and detached (discards heritage culture and rejects US culture). Bicultural caregivers exhibited fewer internalizing and externalizing problems compared to detached caregivers; further, youth exhibited similar internalizing effects across caregiver profiles. In addition, youth with bicultural caregivers displayed increased resting-state brain activity (i.e., fALFF and ReHo) in the left insula, which has been linked to psychopathology; however, differences in long-range functional connectivity were not significant.

      Conclusions

      Caregiver acculturation is an important familial factor linked to significant differences in youth mental health and insula activity. Future work should examine sociocultural and neurodevelopmental changes across adolescence to assess health outcomes and determine whether localized, corticolimbic brain effects are ultimately translated into long-range connectivity differences.

      Keywords

      INTRODUCTION

      Acculturation broadly refers to the extent to which an individual retains their cultural heritage and/or adopts the receiving society’s culture (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ), and has been hypothesized to play an important role in accounting for health disparities, particularly among Hispanic/Latinx populations (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ). Within the United States (US), Hispanic/Latinx people are among the largest and fastest-growing immigrant groups (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) and acculturative processes are salient among first- and second-generation, and to some extent, third-generation, Hispanic/Latinx immigrants (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ). Contemporary views of acculturation draw on Berry’s model (

      Berry JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. A.M. Padilla (Ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview; 1980. p. 9–25.

      ), which casts acculturation as a bidimensional process consisting of receiving/US culture acquisition and heritage culture retention. This bidimensional conceptualization proposes that individuals can acquire receiving culture without discarding their heritage culture (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ). Consistently, research has extensively supported a bidimensional model of acculturation, consisting of distinct heritage and US cultural orientations (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Martinez C.R.
      • McClure H.H.
      Longitudinal effects of acculturation and enculturation on mental health: Does the measure of matter?.
      Development and Psychopathology. 2018 Dec; 30: 1849-1866
      ,
      • Szapocznik J.
      • Kurtines W.M.
      • Fernandez T.
      Bicultural involvement and adjustment in Hispanic-American youths.
      International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 1980; 4: 353-365
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Gonzales-Backen M.A.
      • Davis R.J.
      • Hassell T.
      • Rodil J.C.
      Development of the United States Identity Scale: Unpacking exploration, resolution, and affirmation.
      Journal of Latinx Psychology. 2020; 8: 127-141
      ). Additionally, Berry’s model (
      • Berry J.W.
      Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation.
      Applied Psychology. 1997 Jan 1; 46: 5-34
      ,

      Berry JW, Trimble JE, Olmedo EL. Assessment of acculturation. In: Field methods in cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc; 1986. p. 291–324. (Cross-cultural research and methodology series, Vol. 8.).

      ) proposes four distinct acculturative orientations: (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ) bicultural (i.e., acquires the receiving culture and retains the heritage culture); (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ) assimilated (i.e., acquires the receiving culture and discards the heritage culture); (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) separated (i.e., rejects the receiving culture and retains the heritage culture); and (

      Berry JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. A.M. Padilla (Ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview; 1980. p. 9–25.

      ) detached (i.e., rejects the receiving culture and discards the heritage culture)1 (Fig. 1).
      Figure thumbnail gr1
      Figure 1Acculturative Orientation Profiles. Berry’s model proposes four distinct acculturative orientations. Among Hispanic/Latinx immigrants in the US, these profiles include: (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ) bicultural (i.e., acquires US culture and retains the heritage culture), (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ) assimilated (i.e., acquires US culture and discards the heritage culture), (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) separated (i.e., rejects US culture and retains the heritage culture), and (

      Berry JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. A.M. Padilla (Ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview; 1980. p. 9–25.

      ) detached (i.e., rejects US culture and discards the heritage culture).
      A number of studies (
      • Szapocznik J.
      • Kurtines W.M.
      • Fernandez T.
      Bicultural involvement and adjustment in Hispanic-American youths.
      International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 1980; 4: 353-365
      ,

      Berry JW, Phinney JS, Sam DL, Vedder P. Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts [Internet]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2006 [cited 2022 Mar 12]. Available from: https://www.routledge.com/Immigrant-Youth-in-Cultural-Transition-Acculturation-Identity-and-Adaptation/Berry-Phinney-Sam-Vedder/p/book/9780415648431

      ,
      • Capielo Rosario C.
      • Dillon F.
      Ni de aquí, ni de allá: Puerto Rican acculturation-acculturative stress profiles and depression.
      Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2020 Jan; 26: 42-53
      ,
      • Des Rosiers S.E.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Ham L.S.
      • Huang S.
      A cultural and social cognitive model of differences in acculturation orientations, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol-related risk behaviors among Hispanic college students.
      Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2013; 69: 319-340
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Cobb C.
      • Xie D.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Allen C.
      • Hunter R.
      Exploring Adaptive Acculturation Approaches Among Undocumented Latinos: A Test of Berry’s Model.
      The Counseling Psychologist. 2017 Nov 1; 45: 1115-1140
      ,
      • Salas-Wright C.P.
      • Robles E.H.
      • Vaughn M.G.
      • Córdova D.
      • Pérez-Figueroa R.E.
      Toward a Typology of Acculturative Stress: Results Among Hispanic Immigrants in the United States.
      Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2015 May 1; 37: 223-242
      ,
      • Unger J.B.
      • Gallaher P.
      • Shakib S.
      • Ritt-Olson A.
      • Palmer P.H.
      • Johnson C.A.
      The AHIMSA Acculturation Scale: A new measure of acculturation for adolescents in a multicultural society.
      The Journal of Early Adolescence. 2002; 22: 225-251
      ) have provided mixed support for Berry’s model (

      Berry JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. A.M. Padilla (Ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview; 1980. p. 9–25.

      ) using person-centered methods, such as latent profile analysis (LPA), that empirically derive acculturation groupings. Among recently immigrated Hispanic/Latinx caregivers, detached and bicultural profiles were identified across heritage and US cultural practices and identity (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Córdova D.
      • Mason C.A.
      • Huang S.
      • et al.
      Developmental Trajectories of Acculturation: Links with Family Functioning and Mental Health in Recent-Immigrant Hispanic Adolescents.
      Child Dev. 2015 May; 86: 726-748
      ). In contrast, three profiles were recently identified among a community sample of undocumented Hispanic/Latinx immigrants: bicultural, detached, and separated (
      • Meca A.
      • Cobb C.
      • Xie D.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Allen C.
      • Hunter R.
      Exploring Adaptive Acculturation Approaches Among Undocumented Latinos: A Test of Berry’s Model.
      The Counseling Psychologist. 2017 Nov 1; 45: 1115-1140
      ), while another study identified separated, partially separated, bicultural, and detached profiles (
      • Bulut E.
      • Gayman M.D.
      A latent class analysis of acculturation and depressive symptoms among Latino immigrants: Examining the role of social support.
      International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2020; 76: 13-25
      ). Although specific configurations have been inconsistently observed across studies, biculturalism has been consistently identified and characterized as the most adaptive orientation (

      Berry JW, Phinney JS, Sam DL, Vedder P. Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts [Internet]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2006 [cited 2022 Mar 12]. Available from: https://www.routledge.com/Immigrant-Youth-in-Cultural-Transition-Acculturation-Identity-and-Adaptation/Berry-Phinney-Sam-Vedder/p/book/9780415648431

      ,
      • Coatsworth J.D.
      • Maldonado-Molina M.
      • Pantin H.
      • Szapocznik J.
      A Person-Centered and Ecological Investigation of Acculturation Strategies in Hispanic Immigrant Youth.
      Journal of Community Psychology. 2005; 33: 157-174
      ,
      • David E.J.R.
      • Okazaki S.
      • Saw A.
      Bicultural self-efficacy among college students: Initial scale development and mental health correlates.
      Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2009; 56: 211-226
      ). Indeed, individuals who are bicultural have been found in comparison to other orientations to exhibit fewer symptoms of depression (
      • Bulut E.
      • Gayman M.D.
      A latent class analysis of acculturation and depressive symptoms among Latino immigrants: Examining the role of social support.
      International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2020; 76: 13-25
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Webb T.
      • Cowan I.
      • Moulder A.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Á Szabó
      • et al.
      Effects of Cultural Stress on Identity Development and Depression among Hispanic College Students.
      Identity. 2022 Jan 2; 22: 51-64
      ) and anxiety (
      • Meca A.
      • Webb T.
      • Cowan I.
      • Moulder A.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Á Szabó
      • et al.
      Effects of Cultural Stress on Identity Development and Depression among Hispanic College Students.
      Identity. 2022 Jan 2; 22: 51-64
      ), lower substance use (
      • Des Rosiers S.E.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Ham L.S.
      • Huang S.
      A cultural and social cognitive model of differences in acculturation orientations, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol-related risk behaviors among Hispanic college students.
      Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2013; 69: 319-340
      ), and highest levels of flourishing and life satisfaction (
      • Meca A.
      • Cobb C.L.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Á Szabó
      • Moise R.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • et al.
      Exploring Individual Differences in the Relationship Between Cultural Identity Processes and Well-Being.
      Emerging Adulthood. 2018 Dec 16; 2167696818817168
      ).
      Despite extensive research among Hispanic/Latinx adults, few studies have addressed how acculturation may be related to adolescent (mal)adaptive development and behavior. Adolescence is a critical developmental stage for identity development (

      Crocetti E, Meeus WHJ, Ritchie R, Meca A. Adolescent identity: The key to unraveling associations between family relationships and problem behaviors? In: Parenting and teen drug use [Internet]. Editors: Lawrence M. Scheier, William B. Hansen. Oxford University Press; 2014 [cited 2022 Dec 7]. p. 92–109. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260589236_Adolescent_identity_The_key_to_unraveling_associations_between_family_relationships_and_problem_behaviors

      ) during which youth establish a self identity, as well as a social identity based on group membership. This significant neurodevelopmental period (
      • Fuhrmann D.
      • Knoll L.J.
      • Blakemore S.J.
      Adolescence as a Sensitive Period of Brain Development.
      Trends Cogn Sci. 2015 Oct; 19: 558-566
      ,
      • Dahl R.E.
      • Allen N.B.
      • Wilbrecht L.
      • Suleiman A.B.
      Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective.
      Nature. 2018 Feb 21; 554: 441-450
      ) is marked by changes in self-referential cognition (
      • Pfeifer J.H.
      • Peake S.J.
      Self-development: integrating cognitive, socioemotional, and neuroimaging perspectives.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Jan; 2: 55-69
      ) that are accompanied by maturational shifts in brain structure and function that occur as a consequence of experiences within one’s social environment (
      • Blakemore S.J.
      • Mills K.L.
      Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing?.
      Annu Rev Psychol. 2014; 65: 187-207
      ,
      • Blakemore S.J.
      Development of the social brain in adolescence.
      J R Soc Med. 2012 Mar; 105: 111-116
      ). Such shifts occur in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), insula, and temporoparietal junction (TPJ) (
      • Schriber R.A.
      • Guyer A.E.
      Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2016 Jun; 19: 1-18
      ), which have been linked to self- and affiliation-based social processes (
      • Pintos Lobo R.
      • Bottenhorn K.L.
      • Riedel M.C.
      • Toma A.I.
      • Hare M.M.
      • Smith D.D.
      • et al.
      Neural systems underlying RDoC social constructs: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis.
      Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022 Nov 24; 144104971
      ). In addition to developing a general sense of self and identity, which is a normative developmental task for all adolescents, Hispanic/Latinx youth are also tasked with establishing an acculturative orientation. Hispanic/Latinx adolescents experience shifts in acculturation, encompassing dynamic changes in values, beliefs, and practices that together reflect their cultural group affiliation. These processes impact one’s sense of self and can be broadly shaped by their caregivers’ own acculturative orientation (
      • Meca A.
      • Moreno O.
      • Cobb C.
      • Lorenzo-Blanco E.I.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Cano M.Á.
      • et al.
      Directional Effects in Cultural Identity: A Family Systems Approach for Immigrant Latinx Families.
      J Youth Adolesc. 2021 May; 50: 965-977
      ). Indeed, caregivers’ acculturative orientation impacts the degree to which they socialize their children to gravitate towards (or away) from the receiving and heritage cultures (
      • Meca A.
      • Moreno O.
      • Cobb C.
      • Lorenzo-Blanco E.I.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Cano M.Á.
      • et al.
      Directional Effects in Cultural Identity: A Family Systems Approach for Immigrant Latinx Families.
      J Youth Adolesc. 2021 May; 50: 965-977
      ,
      • Derlan C.L.
      • Umaña-Taylor A.J.
      • Jahromi L.B.
      • Updegraff K.A.
      Cultural socialization attitudes and behaviors: Examining mothers’ centrality, discrimination experiences, and children’s effortful control as moderators.
      Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2018 Apr; 24: 162-172
      ,
      • Umaña-Taylor A.J.
      • Hill N.E.
      Ethnic–Racial Socialization in the Family: A Decade’s Advance on Precursors and Outcomes.
      Journal of Marriage and Family. 2020; 82: 244-271
      ). Thus, it is likely that caregiver acculturation influences not only caregiver mental health, but also has a direct downstream effect on youth mental health. That is, given the strong influence that caregivers have on child and adolescent behavior and psychopathology (
      • Zhang H.
      • Lee Z.X.
      • White T.
      • Qiu A.
      Parental and social factors in relation to child psychopathology, behavior, and cognitive function.
      Transl Psychiatry. 2020 Feb 26; 10: 80
      ,
      • Schulz S.
      • Nelemans S.A.
      • Oldehinkel A.J.
      • Meeus W.
      • Branje S.
      Examining intergenerational transmission of psychopathology: Associations between parental and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms across adolescence.
      Dev Psychol. 2021 Feb; 57: 269-283
      ,
      • McLaughlin K.A.
      • Gadermann A.M.
      • Hwang I.
      • Sampson N.A.
      • Al-Hamzawi A.
      • Andrade L.H.
      • et al.
      Parent psychopathology and offspring mental disorders: results from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys.
      Br J Psychiatry. 2012 Apr; 200: 290-299
      ), we hypothesize that caregiver biculturalism is associated with fewer mental health problems among their children. Further, drawing on a conceptual framework of adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social contexts via caregivers and peers (
      • Schriber R.A.
      • Guyer A.E.
      Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2016 Jun; 19: 1-18
      ), we also hypothesize that caregiver acculturation is directly associated with adolescent socio-affiliative neural function.
      The overall objective of the current study was to test the hypotheses that caregiver acculturation is associated with youth mental health and brain function. To this end, we first sought to evaluate the acculturative orientations of first- and second-generation Hispanic/Latinx immigrant caregivers in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study (ABCD Study®) (
      • Volkow N.D.
      • Koob G.F.
      • Croyle R.T.
      • Bianchi D.W.
      • Gordon J.A.
      • Koroshetz W.J.
      • et al.
      The conception of the ABCD study: From substance use to a broad NIH collaboration.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 4-7
      ). We focused on ABCD data acquired at baseline (i.e., 9-10-year-old youth) to establish an understanding of caregiver acculturation among ABCD Hispanic/Latinx families as an important familial influence at the onset of adolescence. To this end, and building on prior work among adult populations (
      • Capielo Rosario C.
      • Dillon F.
      Ni de aquí, ni de allá: Puerto Rican acculturation-acculturative stress profiles and depression.
      Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2020 Jan; 26: 42-53
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Cobb C.
      • Xie D.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Allen C.
      • Hunter R.
      Exploring Adaptive Acculturation Approaches Among Undocumented Latinos: A Test of Berry’s Model.
      The Counseling Psychologist. 2017 Nov 1; 45: 1115-1140
      ), we aimed to further empirically validate Berry’s model of acculturation by identifying data-driven groupings of ABCD caregivers’ heritage and US cultural orientation at baseline using latent profile analysis (LPA). Consistent with recommended best practices (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      Testing Berry’s model of acculturation: a confirmatory latent class approach.
      Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2008 Oct; 14: 275-285
      ), a data-driven approach is critical as it allows researchers to avoid the utilization of arbitrary cut-off thresholds or the inaccurate identification of much-debated acculturation profiles that may not exist within a given sample (
      • Del Pilar J.A.
      • Udasco J.O.
      Marginality theory: The lack of construct validity.
      Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2004; 26: 3-15
      ). Once we identified acculturative orientation profiles, we investigated associations with caregiver and youth mental health and youth resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) signatures in self- and affiliation-related circuits. Given the large and demographically diverse ABCD sample (
      • Compton W.M.
      • Dowling G.J.
      • Garavan H.
      Ensuring the Best Use of Data: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study.
      JAMA Pediatr. 2019 Sep 1; 173: 809-810
      ), and in line with current theory (
      • Berry J.W.
      Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation.
      Applied Psychology. 1997 Jan 1; 46: 5-34
      ,

      Berry JW, Trimble JE, Olmedo EL. Assessment of acculturation. In: Field methods in cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc; 1986. p. 291–324. (Cross-cultural research and methodology series, Vol. 8.).

      ,

      Berry JW, Phinney JS, Sam DL, Vedder P. Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts [Internet]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2006 [cited 2022 Mar 12]. Available from: https://www.routledge.com/Immigrant-Youth-in-Cultural-Transition-Acculturation-Identity-and-Adaptation/Berry-Phinney-Sam-Vedder/p/book/9780415648431

      ) and informed by prior results among adult populations (
      • Szapocznik J.
      • Kurtines W.M.
      • Fernandez T.
      Bicultural involvement and adjustment in Hispanic-American youths.
      International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 1980; 4: 353-365
      ,

      Berry JW, Phinney JS, Sam DL, Vedder P. Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts [Internet]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2006 [cited 2022 Mar 12]. Available from: https://www.routledge.com/Immigrant-Youth-in-Cultural-Transition-Acculturation-Identity-and-Adaptation/Berry-Phinney-Sam-Vedder/p/book/9780415648431

      ,
      • Capielo Rosario C.
      • Dillon F.
      Ni de aquí, ni de allá: Puerto Rican acculturation-acculturative stress profiles and depression.
      Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2020 Jan; 26: 42-53
      ,
      • Des Rosiers S.E.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Ham L.S.
      • Huang S.
      A cultural and social cognitive model of differences in acculturation orientations, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol-related risk behaviors among Hispanic college students.
      Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2013; 69: 319-340
      ,
      • Meca A.
      • Cobb C.
      • Xie D.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Allen C.
      • Hunter R.
      Exploring Adaptive Acculturation Approaches Among Undocumented Latinos: A Test of Berry’s Model.
      The Counseling Psychologist. 2017 Nov 1; 45: 1115-1140
      ,
      • Salas-Wright C.P.
      • Robles E.H.
      • Vaughn M.G.
      • Córdova D.
      • Pérez-Figueroa R.E.
      Toward a Typology of Acculturative Stress: Results Among Hispanic Immigrants in the United States.
      Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 2015 May 1; 37: 223-242
      ,
      • Unger J.B.
      • Gallaher P.
      • Shakib S.
      • Ritt-Olson A.
      • Palmer P.H.
      • Johnson C.A.
      The AHIMSA Acculturation Scale: A new measure of acculturation for adolescents in a multicultural society.
      The Journal of Early Adolescence. 2002; 22: 225-251
      ,
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Weisskirch R.S.
      Broadening the study of the self: Integrating the study of personal identity and cultural identity.
      Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 2008; 2: 635-651
      ), we hypothesized that LPA would reveal four acculturation profiles (i.e., bicultural, assimilated, separated, and detached profiles). We further expected that biculturalism would be associated with fewer mental health problems among caregivers and their children. We leveraged prior meta-analytic results to guide analyses of brain regions associated with self- and affiliation-based social processing, including the vmPFC, insula, and TPJ (
      • Pintos Lobo R.
      • Bottenhorn K.L.
      • Riedel M.C.
      • Toma A.I.
      • Hare M.M.
      • Smith D.D.
      • et al.
      Neural systems underlying RDoC social constructs: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis.
      Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022 Nov 24; 144104971
      ). Finally, we discuss additional research needed to more fully understand neurobiological mechanisms linked with acculturative experiences.

      METHODS

      Participants

      Participants were selected from the ABCD Study, the largest longitudinal study of brain development and child health in the US (
      • Volkow N.D.
      • Koob G.F.
      • Croyle R.T.
      • Bianchi D.W.
      • Gordon J.A.
      • Koroshetz W.J.
      • et al.
      The conception of the ABCD study: From substance use to a broad NIH collaboration.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 4-7
      ). Approximately 11,800 youth aged 9.00 to 10.99 years old were enrolled in the ABCD Study across 21 sites in the US (
      • Garavan H.
      • Bartsch H.
      • Conway K.
      • Decastro A.
      • Goldstein R.Z.
      • Heeringa S.
      • et al.
      Recruiting the ABCD sample: Design considerations and procedures.
      Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 2018 Aug 1; 32: 16-22
      ). Participants within the ABCD Study were recruited through geographically, demographically, and socioeconomically diverse school systems using epidemiologically informed methods to enroll a population-based, demographically diverse sample (
      • Compton W.M.
      • Dowling G.J.
      • Garavan H.
      Ensuring the Best Use of Data: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study.
      JAMA Pediatr. 2019 Sep 1; 173: 809-810
      ). Data from the ABCD Study are made available by the NIMH Data Archive and the current study utilized data from the ABCD Curated Annual Release 3.0.

      Measures

      Caregiver-Reported Demographics

      Demographic information was provided at baseline by a child’s caregiver, including the child’s age, gender, ethnicity, race, as well as the caregiver’s age, identity, gender, ethnicity, race, education, and combined family income. In addition, caregivers reported the nativity (i.e., country of origin) for the child, parent/guardian, and grandparents (
      • Barch D.M.
      • Albaugh M.D.
      • Avenevoli S.
      • Chang L.
      • Clark D.B.
      • Glantz M.D.
      • et al.
      Demographic, physical and mental health assessments in the adolescent brain and cognitive development study: Rationale and description.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 55-66
      ).

      Caregiver-Reported Acculturation

      Within the robust culture and environment battery at baseline (
      • Zucker R.A.
      • Gonzalez R.
      • Feldstein Ewing S.W.
      • Paulus M.P.
      • Arroyo J.
      • Fuligni A.
      • et al.
      Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 107-120
      ), caregivers completed the Vancouver Index of Acculturation (VIA) in English or Spanish. The VIA is a 16-item bidimensional measure with subscales that separately measure heritage and US acculturation (
      • Ryder A.G.
      • Alden L.E.
      • Paulhus D.L.
      Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment.
      J Pers Soc Psychol. 2000 Jul; 79: 49-65
      ). Items addressed a range of topics, including traditions, social activities, media, cultural values, and behavioral preferences (Table S1). Caregivers were asked to provide their heritage culture as an open-ended item with specific examples provided as prompts (e.g., “Asian”, “Black/African American”, “Hispanic”, “Native American”, “Jewish”); those who did not identify a heritage culture were told not to complete the VIA. Initial assessment of VIA data at ABCD baseline indicated high internal consistency across the heritage (ɑ=0.92) and US (ɑ=0.90) subscales, with early data suggesting higher VIA subscale scores for both heritage and US cultures among families at lower risk compared to those at higher risk for adolescent substance use (
      • Zucker R.A.
      • Gonzalez R.
      • Feldstein Ewing S.W.
      • Paulus M.P.
      • Arroyo J.
      • Fuligni A.
      • et al.
      Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 107-120
      ).

      Caregiver and Youth Measures of Mental Health

      In addition to measures of demographics and acculturation, the ABCD baseline mental health battery included measures of caregiver and youth mental health (
      • Barch D.M.
      • Albaugh M.D.
      • Avenevoli S.
      • Chang L.
      • Clark D.B.
      • Glantz M.D.
      • et al.
      Demographic, physical and mental health assessments in the adolescent brain and cognitive development study: Rationale and description.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 55-66
      ). Caregivers completed the Adult Self Report (ASR), which assesses behavioral dimensions relevant to adult psychopathology (

      Achenbach T. The Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA): Development, findings, theory and applications. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families; 2009.

      ) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (

      Achenbach T. The Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA): Development, findings, theory and applications. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families; 2009.

      ), which assesses behavioral dimensions relevant to child psychopathology. NDA provides the age- and gender-normed syndrome and DSM-oriented scale scores of the ASR and CBCL; the DSM-oriented scoring was used in the present study.

      Hispanic/Latinx Sample Selection

      A total of 11,878 ABCD participants were recruited at baseline. Data for the present analyses were downloaded from NDA for 2,411 participants who completed their baseline assessment for the ABCD Study and responded “Yes” to “Do you consider the child Hispanic/Latino/Latina?”. We filtered participant datasets to include only caregivers who: (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ) completed the VIA, (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ) referenced Hispanic/Latinx culture when completing the VIA, (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) and were either first- or second-generation immigrants from Latin America. The subsequent sample thus consisted of 1,057 caregivers (MeanAge=38.31 years, SD=6.64 years; 90.4% mothers and 9.6% fathers, 70.5% foreign born) and 1,158 children (52.7% male, 91.7% US born) (Table 1). Additional details about the sample are provided in the Supplemental Information (SI).
      Table 1Demographic Characteristics.
      Caregiver (N = 1,057)
      Caregiver Identityn (%) or M (SD)Caregiver Country of Originn (%)ABCD Siten (%)
      Biological mother955 (90.4%)Argentina9 (0.9%)CHLA162 (15.3%)
      Biological father102 (9.6%)Bolivia2 (0.2%)CUB16 (1.5%)
      Caregiver Age38.31 yrs (6.64 yrs)Brazil17 (1.6%)FIU293 (27.7%)
      Caregiver NativityChile5 (0.5%)LIBR44 (4.2%)
      US born312 (29.5%)Colombia39 (3.7%)MUSC2 (0.2%)
      Foreign born745 (70.5%)Costa Rica8 (0.8%)OHSU29 (2.7%)
      Caregiver EducationCuba59 (5.6%)ROC3 (0.3%)
      < High school diploma239 (22.6%)Dominican Republic12 (1.1%)SRI43 (4.1%)
      High school diploma/GED167 (15.8%)Ecuador13 (1.2%)UCLA87 (8.2%)
      Some college352 (33.3%)El Salvador27 (2.6%)UCSD249 (23.6%)
      Bachelor's degree172 (16.3%)Guatemala27 (2.6%)UFL13 (1.2%)
      Postgraduate degree123 (11.6%)Honduras26 (2.5%)UMB12 (1.1%)
      No answer4 (0.4%)Mexico406 (38.4%)UMICH17 (1.6%)
      Household Income per Year ($US)Nicaragua29 (2.7%)UMN6 (0.6%)
      <$5,00049 (4.6%)Panama2 (0.2%)UPMC1 (0.1%)
      $5,000-$11,99965 (6.1%)Paraguay1 (0.1%)UTAH35 (3.3%)
      $12,000-$15,99953 (5.0%)Peru27 (2.6%)UVM4 (0.4%)
      $16,000-$24,999103 (9.7 %)Uruguay3 (0.3%)UWM2 (0.2%)
      $25,000-$34,999126 (11.9%)United States312 (29.5%)VCU11 (1.0%)
      $35,000-$49,999137 (13.0%)Venezuela33 (3.14%)WUSTL1 (0.1%)
      $50,000-$74,999137 (13.0%)YALE25 (2.4%)
      $75,000-$99,999115 (10.9%)MSSM2 (0.2%)
      $100,000-$199,999116 (11.0%)Youth (N = 1,158)
      $200,000 and greater21 (2.0%)Youth Gendern (%)
      No answer135 (12.8%)Male610 (52.7%)
      Female547 (47.2%)
      Refuse to answer1 (0.1%)
      Youth Nativity
      First-Generation96 (8.3%)
      Second-Generation855 (73.8%)
      Third-Generation207 (17.9%)
      Note. n = number of participants, % = percent of sample, M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

      Neuroimaging Data

      Youth participants completed a baseline neuroimaging protocol that included structural MRI and rs-fMRI using high spatial and temporal resolution simultaneous multislice/multiband echo-planar (EPI) (
      • Casey B.J.
      • Cannonier T.
      • Conley M.I.
      • Cohen A.O.
      • Barch D.M.
      • Heitzeg M.M.
      • et al.
      The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: Imaging acquisition across 21 sites.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 43-54
      ,
      • Hagler D.J.
      • Hatton S.
      • Cornejo M.D.
      • Makowski C.
      • Fair D.A.
      • Dick A.S.
      • et al.
      Image processing and analysis methods for the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study.
      Neuroimage. 2019 15; 202116091
      ). For Siemens scanners, fMRI scan parameters were: 90×90 matrix, 60 slices, field of view=216×216, echo time/repetition time=30/800ms, flip angle=52°, 2.4mm isotropic resolution, and slice acceleration factor 6. The complete protocols for all vendors and sequences are provided by Casey et al. (
      • Casey B.J.
      • Cannonier T.
      • Conley M.I.
      • Cohen A.O.
      • Barch D.M.
      • Heitzeg M.M.
      • et al.
      The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: Imaging acquisition across 21 sites.
      Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018 Aug; 32: 43-54
      ).

      Analyses

      Latent Profile Analysis (LPA)

      To empirically evaluate Berry’s model of acculturation by identifying distinct groups of caregivers based on their VIA scores (e.g., US and heritage subscales), we conducted an LPA in Mplus 8.7 with a Robust Maximum Likelihood (MLR) estimator and a sandwich covariance estimator to adjust the standard errors and account for the nesting of participants within site (
      • Kauermann G.
      • Carroll R.J.
      A Note on the Efficiency of Sandwich Covariance Matrix Estimation.
      Journal of the American Statistical Association. 2001 Dec 1; 96: 1387-1396
      ,
      • Freedman D.A.
      On The So-Called “Huber Sandwich Estimator” and “Robust Standard Errors.
      The American Statistician. 2006 Nov 1; 60: 299-302
      ). A combination of fit statistics and substantive interpretability were used to decide on the number of profiles (
      • Nylund K.L.
      • Asparouhov T.
      • Muthén B.O.
      Deciding on the Number of Classes in Latent Class Analysis and Growth Mixture Modeling: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study.
      Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2007 Oct 23; 14: 535-569
      ). First, a solution with k profiles was selected only if it provided a significantly better fit than a solution with k-1 profiles to balance parsimony and fit. This was determined using the Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted Likelihood Ratio Test (LRT), which indicates the extent to which the -2 log likelihood value for a model with k profiles is significantly smaller than the corresponding value for a model with k-1 profiles. Second, entropy values and posterior probabilities of correct classification should be at least 0.70 (
      • Bandeen-Roche K.
      • Miglioretti D.L.
      • Zeger S.L.
      • Rathouz P.J.
      Latent Variable Regression for Multiple Discrete Outcomes.
      Journal of the American Statistical Association. 1997 Dec 1; 92: 1375-1386
      ). Third, to ensure stability of the profile solution, each profile had to represent more than 5% of the sample (
      • Marsh H.W.
      • Lüdtke O.
      • Trautwein U.
      • Morin A.J.S.
      Classical Latent Profile Analysis of Academic Self-Concept Dimensions: Synergy of Person- and Variable-Centered Approaches to Theoretical Models of Self-Concept.
      Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2009 Apr 16; 16: 191-225
      ). Fourth, the profiles had to be conceptually and substantively different from one another; one profile could not simply be a variant of another profile.

      Caregiver and Youth Mental Health

      Next, we implemented the widely utilized classify-analyze approach (
      • Ferguson S.L.
      • Moore EW G.
      • Hull D.M.
      Finding latent groups in observed data: A primer on latent profile analysis in Mplus for applied researchers.
      International Journal of Behavioral Development. 2020 Sep 1; 44: 458-468
      ) and saved profile membership and posterior probabilities for the championed profile model back into the dataset. This approach reduces uncertainty in profile classification and tends to not have the disadvantages associated with a one-step approach but can be biased when entropy is below 0.70 (
      • Nylund-Gibson K.
      • Grimm R.
      • Quirk M.
      • Furlong M.
      A Latent Transition Mixture Model Using the Three-Step Specification.
      Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2014 Jul 3; 21: 439-454
      ). Subsequently, we estimated a series of path models with acculturative orientation as a categorical predictor to determine if there were differences in terms of caregiver and youth mental health using the ASR and CBCL data, respectively. All subsequent path models were estimated in Mplus 8.7 (

      Muthén LK, Muthén B. Mplus User’s Guide [Internet]. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén; 1997. Available from: https://www.statmodel.com/download/usersguide/MplusUserGuideVer_8.pdf

      ) with an MRL estimator and a sandwich covariance estimator (
      • Kauermann G.
      • Carroll R.J.
      A Note on the Efficiency of Sandwich Covariance Matrix Estimation.
      Journal of the American Statistical Association. 2001 Dec 1; 96: 1387-1396
      ,
      • Freedman D.A.
      On The So-Called “Huber Sandwich Estimator” and “Robust Standard Errors.
      The American Statistician. 2006 Nov 1; 60: 299-302
      ) to account for the nesting of participants within site. The Benjamini-Hochberg correction was applied to control for the false discovery rate (FDR) at 0.05 due to multiple comparisons (
      • Benjamini Y.
      • Hochberg Y.
      Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing.
      Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Methodological). 1995; 57: 289-300
      ). Covariates included caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income. Missing data were handled using full-information maximum likelihood estimation. Given the presence of siblings in the youth dataset, youth mental health models were estimated using multilevel modeling (MLM) to account for nesting of children (level 1) within family (level 2) and site (level 3).

      Neuroimaging Preprocessing

      MRI data were processed using fMRIPrep 21.0.0, a BIDS-App that automatically adapts a best-in-breed workflow, ensuring high-quality preprocessing with minimal manual intervention (
      • Esteban O.
      • Ciric R.
      • Finc K.
      • Blair R.W.
      • Markiewicz C.J.
      • Moodie C.A.
      • et al.
      Analysis of task-based functional MRI data preprocessed with fMRIPrep.
      Nat Protoc. 2020 Jul; 15: 2186-2202
      ,
      • Esteban O.
      • Markiewicz C.J.
      • Blair R.W.
      • Moodie C.A.
      • Isik A.I.
      • Erramuzpe A.
      • et al.
      fMRIPrep: a robust preprocessing pipeline for functional MRI.
      Nat Methods. 2019; 16: 111-116
      ). Anatomical images were intensity-corrected, skull-stripped, segmented, and spatially normalized to a standard brain template in MNI space. Functional MRI preprocessing included motion correction, susceptibility distortion correction, and coregistration. Denoising was performed using AFNI’s (
      • Cox R.W.
      AFNI: Software for Analysis and Visualization of Functional Magnetic Resonance Neuroimages.
      Computers and Biomedical Research. 1996 Jun 1; 29: 162-173
      ) 3dTproject (
      • Lindquist M.A.
      • Geuter S.
      • Wager T.D.
      • Caffo B.S.
      Modular preprocessing pipelines can reintroduce artifacts into fMRI data.
      Human Brain Mapping. 2019; 40: 2358-2376
      ). Complete details of the MRI preprocessing and analyses are described in the SI.

      Resting State fMRI Analyses

      Resting state fMRI analyses were preregistered (https://osf.io/mkdw3/). We focused on five meta-analytically-defined regions of interest (ROIs) associated with self- and affiliation-related processing (

      Pintos Lobo R, Bottenhorn KL, Riedel MC, Toma AI, Hare MM, Smith DD, et al. Neural systems underlying RDoC social constructs: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis [Internet]. bioRxiv; 2022 [cited 2022 Apr 6]. p. 2022.04.04.487016. Available from: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.04.04.487016v1

      ), including the (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ) vmPFC, (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ) left insula, (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) right insula, (

      Berry JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings. A.M. Padilla (Ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview; 1980. p. 9–25.

      ) left TPJ, and (
      • Meca A.
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Martinez C.R.
      • McClure H.H.
      Longitudinal effects of acculturation and enculturation on mental health: Does the measure of matter?.
      Development and Psychopathology. 2018 Dec; 30: 1849-1866
      ) right TPJ (Fig. S1). For each resting-state acquisition, voxelwise time series were extracted from each ROI using the unsmoothed, preprocessed, and denoised data via AFNI’s 3dmaskave. Averaged ROI time series were generated by calculating the mean voxel value for each time point across non-zero voxels respective to each region. For each ROI, we computed two measures of rs-fMRI activity: fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) as a measure of local, spontaneous fluctuations during the resting state (

      Zou QH, Zhu CZ, Yang Y, Zuo XN, Long XY, Cao QJ, et al. An improved approach to detection of amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) for resting-state fMRI: fractional ALFF. J Neurosci Methods. 2008 Jul 15;172(1):137–141.

      ), and regional homogeneity (ReHo) as a measure of local BOLD signal coherence (
      • Zang Y.
      • Jiang T.
      • Lu Y.
      • He Y.
      • Tian L.
      Regional homogeneity approach to fMRI data analysis.
      Neuroimage. 2004 May; 22: 394-400
      ). In addition, adjacency matrices were constructed for each participant by computing the pairwise Pearson’s correlation coefficients between each pair of ROIs generating a 5x5 connectivity matrix with 10 unique regional pairs. Correlation values were Fisher z-transformed to provide a summary measure of pairwise functional connectivity.
      Next, we estimated a series of path models to characterize potential differences across caregiver acculturation profiles in terms of rs-fMRI activity and connectivity. Three separate models were tested for: (
      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ) spontaneous fluctuations using fALFF, (

      The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press; 2017. xvi, 468 p. (Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, editors. The Oxford handbook of acculturation and health).

      ) local signal coherence using ReHo, and (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      ) functional connectivity using z-transformed correlation coefficients. Path models were estimated in Mplus 8.7 controlling for caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income.

      RESULTS

      Latent Profile Analysis

      As shown in Table 2, the 2-profile solution provided significantly better fit compared to the 1-profile solution [LRT=468.392, p<0.001]. Although entropy was higher, AIC/BIC were lower for the 3-profile solution, and the LRT test was trending towards significance [LRT=143.473, p=0.065], closer examination of the 3-profile solution indicated the additional profile was not conceptually and substantively different from one of the initial profiles and also only accounted for 4.16% of the sample (see SI). Thus, the 2-profile solution was advanced as the championed model.
      Table 2Latent Profile Analysis Model Comparisons.
      # of ProfilesAICBICAdj BICEntropySmallestLRT (

      Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 [Internet]. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2015. Report No.: P25-1143. Available from: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf

      )      		p-Value
      25520.4575555.1995532.9660.79126.68%468.392<0.001
      35376.1175425.7485393.9870.8334.16%143.4720.065
      45284.5365349.0575307.7670.8712.37%93.1230.188
      Note. AIC = Akaike Information Criteria, BIC = Bayesian Information Criteria, LRT = Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted Likelihood Ratio Test.
      Table 3 presents mean z-scores for heritage and US cultural orientations across profiles, indicating how far each profile deviated from the total sample average. These z-scores can be interpreted as an effect size index. The first profile represented 73.3% of the sample (n=775) and was marked by high levels of both heritage and US cultural orientation. In line with Berry’s conceptualization, this model was labeled “Bicultural”. The second profile, labeled “Detached”, accounted for 26.7% of the sample (n=282) and was characterized by low levels of both heritage and US cultural orientation.
      Table 3Standardized Differences Across the 2-Profile Solution.
      Acculturation Dimension

      % of Sample      		Bicultural

      73.3%      		Detached

      26.7%
      MeanSDMeanSD
      Heritage Orientation0.471 (7.790)0.557 (0.955)-1.295 (4.760)0.781 (1.340)
      US Orientation0.392 (7.606)0.681 (1.086)-1.079 (5.260)0.941 (1.501)
      Note. Dimensions were standardized and should be interpreted as average z-scores indicating how far each profile deviates from the total sample average scores and from other profiles. Original unstandardized scores are reported in parentheses.
      Next, given entropy was greater than 0.70, we utilized the classify-analyze approach (
      • Ferguson S.L.
      • Moore EW G.
      • Hull D.M.
      Finding latent groups in observed data: A primer on latent profile analysis in Mplus for applied researchers.
      International Journal of Behavioral Development. 2020 Sep 1; 44: 458-468
      ) and saved profile membership and posterior probabilities back into the dataset. The average posterior probabilities were 0.96 and 0.89 for the bicultural and detached profiles, respectively. To ensure clearly defined class membership, we restricted profile assignment to those whose posterior probabilities were 0.70 or higher. Of the 1,057 total unique caregivers, 981 (92.81%) had posterior probabilities greater than 0.70, including 747 bicultural and 234 detached caregivers, and there were no significant differences between those with posterior probabilities below 0.70 (see SI). Fig. 2 illustrates the z-scores for heritage and US cultural orientations across profiles. There were no significant differences between profiles in terms of caregiver identity, age, and generational status; family income; or youth gender and generational status. However, there was a significant difference in terms of education, such that caregivers with a bicultural orientation were overrepresented among higher educational attainment categories (Table 4).
      Figure thumbnail gr2
      Figure 2Heritage and US Cultural Orientations Across Profiles. LPA revealed two acculturative orientation profiles among Hispanic/Latinx caregivers in the ABCD Study. Cultural orientation subscale scores were normalized across participants and the resulting z-scored values are shown in: (A) a joint kernel density estimate plot (
      • Waskom M.L.
      seaborn: statistical data visualization.
      Journal of Open Source Software. 2021 Apr 6; 6: 3021
      ) and (B) a raincloud plot (
      • Allen M.
      • Poggiali D.
      • Whitaker K.
      • Marshall T.R.
      • van Langen J.
      • Kievit R.A.
      Raincloud plots: a multi-platform tool for robust data visualization.
      Wellcome Open Res. 2021;
      ). In both visualizations, the “Bicultural” profile (n=747) demonstrated high levels of both heritage and US cultural orientation (purple), while the “Detached” profile (n=234) exhibited very low levels of both heritage and US cultural orientation (green).
      Table 4Demographic Characteristics for Bicultural and Detached Groups.
      Total Caregiver Sample (N = 1,057)Bicultural Caregivers (n = 747)Detached Caregivers (n = 234)Statistics
      Caregiver Identityn (%) or M (SD)n (%) or M (SD)n (%) or M (SD)
      Biological mother955 (90.4%)682 (91.3%)206 (88.0%)χ2 (1) = 2.213
      Biological father102 (9.6%)65 (8.7%)28 (12.0%)p = 0.137
      Cramér’s V = 0.05
      Caregiver Age
      38.31 yrs (6.64 yrs)38.49 yrs (6.48 yrs)37.53 yrs (6.48 yrs)t(971) = -1.95
      p = 0.051
      Cohen's d = 0.15
      Caregiver Nativity
      US born312 (29.5%)163 (21.8%)71 (30.3%)χ2 (1) = 0.210
      Foreign born745 (70.5%)532 (78.2%)163 (69.7%p = 0.647
      Cramér’s V = 0.02
      Caregiver Education
      < High school diploma239 (22.6%)158 (21.2%)69 (29.5%)t(975) = -3.840
      High school diploma/GED167 (15.8%)109 (14.6%)43 (18.4%)p < 0.001
      Some college352 (33.3%)252 (33.7%)74 (31.6%)Cohen's d = 0.29
      Bachelor's degree172 (16.3%)127 (17.0%)31 (13.3%)
      Postgraduate degree123 (11.6%)98 (13.1%)16 (6.8%)
      No answer4 (0.4%)3 (0.4%)1 (0.4%)
      Household Income per Year ($US)
      <$5,00049 (4.6%)37 (5.0%)7 (3.0%)t(853) = -0.436
      $5,000-$11,99965 (6.1%)48 (6.4%)14 (6.0%)p = 0.663
      $12,000-$15,99953 (5.0%)38 (5.1%)13 (5.6%)Cohen's d = 0.03
      $16,000-$24,999103 (9.7%)66 (8.8%)34 (14.5%)
      $25,000-$34,999126 (11.9%)89 (11.9%)23 (9.8%)
      $35,000-$49,999137 (13.0%)103 (13.8%)26 (11.1%)
      $50,000-$74,999137 (13.0%)96 (12.9%)30 (12.8%)
      $75,000-$99,999115 (10.9%)82 (11.0%)26 (11.1%)
      $100,000-$199,999116 (11.0%)84 (11.2%)21 (9.0%)
      $200,000 and greater21 (2.0%)14 (1.9%)4 (1.7%)
      No answer135 (12.8%)90 (12.0%)36 (15.4%)
      Total Youth Sample (N = 1,158)Youth w/ Bicultural Caregivers (n = 814)Youth w/ Detached Caregivers (n = 261)Statistics
      Youth Gendern (%)n (%)n (%)
      Male610 (52.7%)439 (53.9%)131 (50.2%)χ2 (1) = 1.149
      Female547 (47.2%)374 (46.0%)130 (49.8%)p = 0.284
      No answer1 (0.1%)1 (0.1%)0 (0%)Cramér’s V = 0.03
      Youth Nativity
      First-Generation96 (8.3%)71 (8.7%)20 (7.7%)χ2 (2) = 296
      Second-Generation855 (73.8%)596 (73.2%)194 (74.3%)p = 0.863
      Third-Generation207 (17.9%)147 (18.1%)47 (18.0%)Cramér’s V = 0.02
      Note. n = number of participants, % = percent of sample, M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

      Class Membership Effects: Caregiver and Youth Mental Health

      Next, we estimated a path model with acculturative orientation included as a categorical predictor (0=detached, 1=bicultural) to determine whether there were significant differences across profiles in terms of caregiver mental health. Results indicated that being bicultural was associated with fewer symptoms of depression, avoidant, and inattentive behaviors; however, the association between caregivers' acculturative orientation and inattentive behavior did not survive correction for multiple comparisons (Table 5).
      Table 5Class Membership Effects on Caregiver Mental Health.
      Estimate (SE)p-valueFDR-corrected p-value95% CI L95% CI H
      Caregiver-Reported ASR (DSM Scoring)
      Depression-1.060 (0.338)0.002*0.016*-1.723-0.397
      Anxiety-0.204 (0.458)0.6560.656-1.1030.695
      Somatic-0.812 (0.448)0.0700.112-1.6900.066
      Avoidant-1.245 (0.469)0.008*0.032*-2.165-0.325
      ADHD-1.040 (0.536)0.0530.106-2.0910.011
      Antisocial-0.559 (0.378)0.1400.187-1.2990.182
      Inattention-1.280 (0.617)0.038*0.101-2.490-0.070
      Hyperactivity-0.524 (0.391)0.1800.206-1.2910.243
      Note. ASR = Achenbach Adult Self Report, SE = Standard Error, CI L = Confidence Interval Low, CL H = Confidence Interval High, FDR-corrected p-value = the false discovery rate-corrected p-value using the Benjamini-Hochberg correction. Standard errors are provided within parentheses. * and bold indicates significant at p-value < 0.05. Path models controlled for caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income.
      We examined whether there were significant differences between caregiver bicultural and detached profiles in terms of youth mental health. Children of caregivers with a bicultural orientation exhibited significantly fewer symptoms of depression and somatic complaints; however, neither of these findings survived the correction for multiple comparisons (Table 6).
      Table 6Class Membership Effects on Youth Mental Health.
      Estimate (SE)p-valueFDR-corrected p-value95% CI L95% CI H
      Caregiver-Reported CBCL (DSM Scoring)
      Depression-0.652 (0.318)0.040*0.120-1.276-0.029
      Anxiety-0.386 (0.454)0.3930.472-1.2710.500
      Somatic-0.850 (0.381)0.026*0.156-1.597-0.104
      ADHD-0.371 (0.315)0.2390.359-0.9890.247
      Oppositional Defiant-0.036 (0.248)0.8860.886-0.5220.451
      Conduct-0.601 (0.410)0.1420.284-1.4040.202
      Note. CBCL = Child Behavior Checklist .SE = Standard Error, CI L = Confidence Interval Low, CL H = Confidence Interval High, FDR-corrected p-value = the false discovery rate-corrected p-value using the Benjamini-Hochberg correction. Standard errors are provided within parentheses. * and bold indicates significant at p-value < 0.05. Path models controlled for caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income.

      Class Membership Effects: Youth rs-fMRI Activity and Connectivity

      Lastly, we examined whether there were significant differences between caregiver bicultural and detached profiles in terms of youth rs-fMRI activity and connectivity. With respect to spontaneous fluctuations during the resting state (Table 7a), children of caregivers with a bicultural orientation exhibited greater fALFF values in the left insula; however, this finding did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. In terms of regional homogeneity (Table 7b), children of caregivers with a bicultural orientation exhibited greater ReHo values (even after correction for multiple comparisons) also in the left insula. In terms of pairwise functional connectivity values (Table 8), no significant differences in connectivity between the vmPFC, bilateral insula, and bilateral TPJ were observed among youth with bicultural vs. detached caregivers.
      Table 7Class Membership Effects on Youth rs-fMRI Activity.
      Estimate (SE)p-valueFDR-corrected p-value95% CI L95% CI H
      (a) fALFF
      vmPFC0.015 (0.017)0.4000.800-0.0200.049
      Left Insula0.021 (0.008)0.006*0.0600.0060.036
      Right Insula0.010 (0.013)0.4180.597-0.0140.035
      Left TPJ-0.019 (0.022)0.3940.985-0.0630.025
      Right TPJ-0.012 (0.015)0.4170.695-0.0410.017
      (b) ReHo
      vmPFC-0.004 (0.021)0.8500.944-0.0440.036
      Left Insula0.030 (0.011)0.007*0.035*0.0080.051
      Right Insula0.025 (0.016)0.1120.373-0.0060.056
      Left TPJ-0.015 (0.034)0.6680.835-0.0810.052
      Right TPJ<.001 (0.030)0.9950.995-0.0590.059
      Note. fALFF = fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations, ReHo = regional homogeneity, vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex, TPJ = temporoparietal junction. SE = Standard Error, CI L = Confidence Interval Low, CL H = Confidence Interval High, FDR-corrected p-value = the false discovery rate-corrected p-value using the Benjamini-Hochberg correction. Standard errors are provided within parentheses. * and bold indicates significant at p-value < 0.05. Path models controlled for caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income.
      Table 8Class Membership Effects on Youth rs-fMRI Connectivity.
      Estimate (SE)p-valueFDR-corrected p-value95% CI L95% CI H
      Functional Connectivity
      L Insula --- R Insula0.020 (0.016))0.2020.673-0.0110.050
      L Insula --- L TPJ-0.001 (0.017)0.9700.970-0.0350.033
      L Insula --- R TPJ0.025 (0.016)0.1071.000-0.0050.056
      L Insula --- vmPFC0.022 (0.030)0.4760.793-0.0380.081
      R Insula --- L TPJ-0.007 (0.010)0.4900.700-0.0250.012
      R Insula --- R TPJ0.016 (0.012)0.1990.995-0.0080.040
      R Insula --- vmPFC0.022 (0.023)0.3260.815-0.0220.067
      L TPJ --- R TPJ0.004 (0.018)0.8190.910-0.0310.040
      L TPJ --- vmPFC-0.010 (0.014)0.4710.942-0.0380.018
      R TPJ --- vmPFC0.012 (0.019)0.5450.681-0.0260.049
      Note. vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex, TPJ = temporoparietal junction, L = Left, R = Right. SE = Standard Error, CI L = Confidence Interval Low, CL H = Confidence Interval High, FDR-corrected p-value = the false discovery rate-corrected p-value using the Benjamini-Hochberg correction. Standard errors are provided within parentheses. * and bold indicates significant at p-value < 0.05. Path models controlled for caregiver education, identity, nativity, as well as youth gender and family income.

      DISCUSSION

      Acculturation data from Hispanic/Latinx caregivers in the ABCD Study were analyzed and yielded two caregiver profiles. “Bicultural” caregivers (n=747) endorsed high levels of both heritage and US cultural orientation, while “detached” (n=234) caregivers endorsed very low levels of heritage and US cultural orientation. Theory (
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      ,

      Berry JW, Phinney JS, Sam DL, Vedder P. Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation Across National Contexts [Internet]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2006 [cited 2022 Mar 12]. Available from: https://www.routledge.com/Immigrant-Youth-in-Cultural-Transition-Acculturation-Identity-and-Adaptation/Berry-Phinney-Sam-Vedder/p/book/9780415648431

      ) and prior experimental work (
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      ) have identified two additional profiles, “assimilated” (high US and low heritage) and “separated” (low US and high heritage), which were surprisingly not observed. It is possible that separated caregivers were less likely to enroll their children in the ABCD Study due to mistrust, documentation concerns, and/or reluctance to participate in a high-profile, national, longitudinal study (
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      ) among adult populations. As a whole, in contrast to results among adolescents and young adults (
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      ), these findings may indicate decreased variability in cultural orientation among adults. Overall, utilization of a data-driven approach allowed for the testing of competing models underlying the data, yielding more ecologically valid findings that reflect the lived experiences of ABCD Hispanic/Latinx families.
      Comparison of ABCD bicultural and detached profiles indicated that biculturalism was associated with more positive mental health outcomes in agreement with a wealth of previous acculturation research (

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      ). However, these prior studies are characterized by the use of individual rating inventories that separately measure symptoms of a single disorder (e.g., depression). The current work represents the first time the ASR has been utilized to study acculturative orientations, allowing for a more comprehensive evaluation across multiple symptoms and disorders. We observed an interesting pattern of behavioral problems among detached caregivers, including increased avoidant behaviors and symptoms of depression and inattention. When placed in context of need and motivation for relationships with others, this pattern suggests a diminished approach for and enjoyment of social interactions. It is possible that individuals with a detached orientation experience overall low social affiliation that influences their connectedness to other people and broader social structures. Future work will need to address the extent to which detached orientations may reflect low behavioral activation system (BAS) (

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      ) sensitivity or anhedonia and low social approach (
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      ).
      From a family systems perspective, current findings within the ABCD sample indicate potential downstream effects among youth as a result of caregiver acculturation. The results suggest significant, and likely complex, differences in caregiving environments as a result of caregiver health, parenting, family functioning, that collectively and dynamically influences fetal through adolescent development. Emerging patterns of increased symptoms of depression and somatic complaints among 9-10-year-old youth with detached caregivers were observed, thus identifying a subset of Hispanic/Latinx youth that are at higher risk for adverse outcomes at the beginning of adolescence, a critical socioemotional neurodevelopmental period wherein psychopathology often emerges (
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      ), and perhaps provide somewhat limited insight into youth perspectives on acculturation and mental health. Future analyses of subsequent ABCD time points should incorporate youth-reported measures. Furthermore, the longitudinal design of the ABCD Study provides a unique opportunity to continue following these at-risk Hispanic/Latinx youth, with the aim of more fully understanding divergent trajectories sensitive to stressful family dynamics that arise during adolescence when Hispanic/Latinx youth are developing their own cultural values, beliefs, and practices (
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      We hypothesized that differences in caregiver acculturation would be associated with differences in youth rs-fMRI signatures in self- and affiliation-related circuits. Resting state was considered an important data source in the present study given its links to self-referential processing (
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      ). If indeed detached caregivers transmit their acculturative orientation directly to their children, and if detached orientations are linked to anhedonia and/or altered reward behaviors, then it is possible that dysregulated insula function is a central neurobiological mechanism of interest, given its prominent role in reward processing (
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      ). Given the present results, future task-based analyses may be warranted to probe reward-based circuitry (i.e., ABCD’s monetary incentive delay task (
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      )) among youth with bicultural vs. detached caregivers. Finally, we note that while differences in rs-fMRI activity (i.e., fALFF and ReHo) were observed, significant effects were not found for long-range connectivity differences. Lack of whole brain connectivity findings may be due to a number of factors, including methodological issues affecting power and reliability, developmental variability of long-range connectivity patterns, or the lack of an association between caregiver acculturation and youth brain connectivity. Future work should examine neurodevelopmental changes across adolescence to determine if localized, corticolimbic brain effects among Hispanic/Latinx youth at ABCD baseline are ultimately translated into long-range connectivity differences.
      In conclusion, these findings indicate that acculturation is an important factor relevant to ABCD Hispanic/Latinx caregivers’ mental health, as well as the mental health and resting-state insula activity of their children. This work demonstrates that the ABCD multisite design and demographically diverse sample offer an opportunity to study participant groups that have been historically underrepresented in neuroimaging research. Further, the current work intentionally does not compare Hispanic vs. non-Hispanic participants, which can implicitly provide support for a deficits-based framework. Instead, we emphasize the diversity of Hispanic/Latinx families in the US who have diverse family dynamics, life experiences, and health-related outcomes. Moreover, analysis of a subset of the ABCD sample creates a space to focus on Hispanic/Latinx culture in a way that is not centered around non-Hispanic, majority experiences. ABCD’s robust culture and environment protocol was thoughtfully developed and provided the measures that made this work feasible. Additional population-based, neuroimaging studies incorporating other culturally-relevant measures of the social and structural determinants of health are urgently needed. Such work will allow for a more complete understanding of neurobiological processes of risk and resilience among individuals from underrepresented, minoritized groups that experience health-related disparities as a consequence of their racial, ethnic, sexual, or gender identity.

      Supplementary Material

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      Article info

      Publication history

      Accepted: February 9, 2023
      Received in revised form: February 8, 2023
      Received: October 24, 2022

      Publication stage

      In Press Accepted Manuscript

      Footnotes

      ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

      Funding

      Primary funding for this project was provided by NIH U01DA041156 (ARL, MCR, ASD, MTS, SWH, MS, RG) and R01DA041353 (ARL, MTS, MCR). Additional thanks to the FIU Instructional & Research Computing Center (IRCC, http://ircc.fiu.edu) for providing the HPC and computing resources that contributed to the research results reported within this paper.

      Data Availability

      Data used in the preparation of this article were obtained from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study (https://abcdstudy.org), held in the NIMH Data Archive (NDA). This is a multisite, longitudinal study designed to recruit more than 10,000 children age 9-10 and follow them over 10 years into early adulthood. The ABCD Study® is supported by the National Institutes of Health and additional federal partners under award numbers U01DA041048, U01DA050989, U01DA051016, U01DA041022, U01DA051018, U01DA051037, U01DA050987, U01DA041174, U01DA041106, U01DA041117, U01DA041028, U01DA041134, U01DA050988, U01DA051039, U01DA041156, U01DA041025, U01DA041120, U01DA051038, U01DA041148, U01DA041093, U01DA041089, U24DA041123, U24DA041147. A full list of supporters is available at https://abcdstudy.org/federal-partners.html. A listing of participating sites and a complete listing of the study investigators can be found at https://abcdstudy.org/consortium_members/. ABCD consortium investigators designed and implemented the study and/or provided data but did not necessarily participate in the analysis or writing of this report. This manuscript reflects the views of the authors and may not reflect the opinions or views of the NIH or ABCD consortium investigators.

      The ABCD data repository grows and changes over time. The ABCD data used in this report came from NDA ABCD Release 3.0 (DOI: 10.15154/1520591). An NDA Study was created to associate the analyses reported in this study with the underlying ABCD Study data (DOI: 10.15154/1527751).

      Preprint Availability

      The article has been posted as a preprint at bioRxiv and can be found at https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.24.501248v2.article-info

      Code and Materials Availability

      Additional information and resources are available on a project page for this study at the Open Science Framework (OSF) (https://osf.io/mkdw3/). The code is available in two GitHub repositories, including one for analysis of the VIA data (https://github.com/NBCLab/abcd-hispanic-via) and one for the fMRI preprocessing and analyses (https://github.com/NBCLab/abcd_fmriprep-analysis). ROI and connectivity maps are available in NeuroVault (https://identifiers.org/neurovault.collection:1276). High-resolution figures are available via FigShare (https://figshare.com/account/home#/projects/143997).

      Competing Interests

      The authors report no biomedical financial interests or potential conflicts of interest.

      Author Contributions

      AM and ARL conceived and designed the project. AM, JAP, MCR, WH, and ARL analyzed data. JAP, MCR, TS, JSF, and KLB contributed scripts and pipelines. WH, ASD, and MTS provided statistical support and JWP, RPL, LMU, CAG, SWH, MS, MRG, RG provided support for analysis of ABCD measures and results interpretation. AM, JAP, MCR, and ARL wrote the paper and all authors contributed to the revisions and approved the final version.

      1 Although Berry (1997) originally used the term “Integration”, the dual endorsement of heritage and US cultures has been increasingly referred to as “Biculturalism” (

      • Schwartz S.J.
      • Unger J.B.
      • Zamboanga B.L.
      • Szapocznik J.
      Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research.
      American Psychologist. 2010; 65: 237-251
      ). Moreover, although Berry used the term “Marginalized” to represent detachment from both heritage and US cultures, we use the term “Detached” as a better representation of individuals’ lack of connection to either cultural stream.

      Identification

      DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.02.005

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